cheraka_merah [Cebisan Sejarah Hutan]

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====== Cheraka Merah (Plumbago Rosea) ======

===== Dirujuk oleh =====

 * [[bukit_cherakah|Hutan Simpan Bukit Cherakah (1909-Kini)]]

===== Perihal =====

Sejenis pokok renek berbunga putih atau merah, biasa ditemui pada tahun 1890-an: //"There are, however, certain omissions of words in more or less common use in British territory to which we venture to draw the authors' attention. Such are ... 'Cheraka,' the name of a common shrub with white or red flowers; ..."// (The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942), 13 March 1897, Page 2: {{ :akhbar:singfreepressb18970313-1-2-4.pdf ||}}[[https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/singfreepressb18970313-1.2.4|"THE MALAY DICTIONARY (Clifford and Swettenham.) PART III"]]).

{{:gambar:laurelinsert.jpg?300|}}{{:gambar:laurelpd2.jpg?300|}}{{:gambar:laurelpd3.jpg?300|}} \\
//"Laurel is an erect or spreading, more or less branched, herbaceous or half-woody plant, 1.5 meters or less in height. Leaves are ovate to oblong-ovate, 8 to 13 centimeters long, smooth, slightly drooping, with entire, undulate or wavy margins, with a pointed or blunt tip and a pointed base. Spikes are 15 to 30 centimeters long. Calyx is tubular, 8 to 10 millimeters long, covered with stalked, sticky glands. Corolla is bright red, tube is slender, about 2.5 centimeters long, and the spreading limb, about 3 centimeters in diameter."// (Godofredo U. Stuart Jr., M.D. / StuartXchange, 2020: {{ :laman:laurel_plumbago_rosea_philippine_medicinal_herbs_philippine_alternative_medicine.pdf ||}}[[http://www.stuartxchange.org/Laurel|"Laurel"]]).

==== Nama-Nama Lain ====

//"Plumbago rosea. Linn. \\
Lál-chíta, Lál-chítarak (Hind.), Lál-chitarmúl (Duk.), Rakto-chitá (Beng.), Chitra (Punj.), Shitranj (Kash.), Shivappu-chittira-múlam, Kodi-múli (Tam.), Erra-chitra-múlam (Tel.), Chenti-kotuvéli (Mal.), Kempu-chitra-múlá (Can.), Támbada-chitramúla (Mah.), Ratnitúl (Cing.), Kin-khen-ní (Burm.), Chiraka-merah (Malay)."// (EDWARD JOHN WARING, C.I.E., M.D., 1897: [[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/58525/pg58525-images.html|"REMARKS ON THE USES OF SOME OF THE BAZAAR MEDICINES AND COMMON MEDICAL PLANTS OF INDIA"]], m.s. 129).

//"PLUMBAGO ROSEA. \\ 
(N.O. - PLUMBAGINEAE.) \\
Sans. - Raktachitraka. Eng. - Rose-coloured Leadwort. Hind. - Lal-chitarak, Lal-chitra. Ben. - Rakto-chitra, Lal chita. Punj. - Chitra. Kash. - Shitranj. Duk. - Lal-Chiturmul. Mah. - Lal-Chitraka, Tel. - Yerra-chitramulam. Tam. - Kodimuli Shivappu Chittramulam. Can. - Kempu Chitramula. Mal. - Chekkikotuveri. Cing. - Ratnitul. Burm. - Kin-khenni. Malay. - Chiraka-merah."// (K.M. Nadkarni, 1910: {{ :lampiran:pli.kerala.rare.9113.pdf ||}}[[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9113|"INDIAN PLANTS and DRUGS with their Medical Properties and Uses"]], m.s. 310).

//"OTHER NAMES \\
Tamil: Shivappu Chittramulam \\
English: Rose-coloured Lead-wort \\ 
Telugu: Yerra-chitramulam \\
Malayalam: Chekkikotuveri \\
Kannada: Kempu chitramula \\
Marathi: Lal-chitarakak \\
Hindi: Lal-chitarah ; Chitra \\
Sanskrit:Raktachitraka ; Chitraka"//

(Sumber: Bharathi Aravindh Foundation: {{ :laman:plumbago_rosea_-_aravindh_health_centre.pdf ||}}[[http://www.aravindhhealthcentre.org/plumbago-rosea.html|"PLUMBAGO ROSEA"]]).

==== Penggunaan ====

Akar pokok cheraka merah atau //"plumbago rosea"// sering digunakan oleh pengamal perubatan tradisional melayu, antaranya untuk:-

Ubat batuk: //"Should there be a cough ... Take akar cheraka merah (root of Plumbago rosea); and halia padi (a race of Zingiber officinale, ginger). Grind finely and mix with clarified butter (ghi). Let the patient swallow this in the early morning and be relieved."// (J.D. Gimlette, I.H. Burkill: The Gardens' Bulletin, Straits Settlements, Vol. 06 (11 -15), 1930; berdasarkan terjemahan Munshi Ismail, 1886: {{ :lampiran:4_4_06_3_01_y1930_v6p3_gbs_pg_323.pdf ||}}[[https://www.nparks.gov.sg/sbg/research/publications/gardens'-bulletin-singapore/listing-of-publications?year=1930|"THE MEDICAL BOOK OF MALAYAN MEDICINE"]], m.s.341).

"Raise a blister":-

  * //"The root of this plant, common in gardens throughout India, is of great value as a means of raising a blister when other articles of the same class are not available. For this purpose take the fresh bark of the root and rub it into a paste with water and a little rice flour; spread this on a piece of rag and apply it to the surface; in about five minutes it begins to give pain, which increases in severity for about half an hour, when it may be removed; a rice poultice may then be applied over the part, and within twelve or eighteen hours a large uniform blister will be found to have formed. The fluid having being let out, it may be dressed with plantain leaf, in the usual way. The chief objection to the use of a Plumbago blister is the great pain it occasions, hence it should only be used when other blistering agents are not at hand, and a blister is an immediate necessity."// (EDWARD JOHN WARING, C.I.E., M.D., 1897: [[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/58525/pg58525-images.html|"REMARKS ON THE USES OF SOME OF THE BAZAAR MEDICINES AND COMMON MEDICAL PLANTS OF INDIA"]], m.s. 129).

  * //"Properties and Uses. - The root, which contains a crystalline principle called Plubagin, has vesicant properties, and enters into the composition of caustic pastes and rubefacient applications. The bruised root mixed with oil is used as a rubefacient application in rheumatism. Taken internally it is a powerful acro-narcotic poison; it is employed to procure criminal abortion as it will expel the foetus from the womb whether dead or alive. Externally it has been sometimes used as a substitute for cantharides for raising a blister. The fresh bark of the root is rubbed into a paste with water and a little rice flour; it is then spread on a piece of rag and applied to the surface. In about 5 minutes a pain is felt, which increases in severity for about half an hour, when it may be removed; a rice poultice may then be applied over the part, and within 12 or 18 hours a large uniform blister will be found to have formed. The fluid having been let out, it may be dressed with plantain leaf in the usual way. The chief objection to the use of plumbago blister is the great pain it causes, hence it should only be used when other blistering agents are not at hand and a blister is an immediate necessity."// (K.M. Nadkarni, 1910: {{ :lampiran:pli.kerala.rare.9113.pdf ||}}[[https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9113|"INDIAN PLANTS and DRUGS with their Medical Properties and Uses"]], m.s. 311).

Menggugurkan bayi dalam kandungan:-

  * //"Plumbago rosea (Plumbagineae) 'Cheraka merah.' The roots chewed for seven days in the morning and evening with betel-nut, produces miscariage."// (H.N. Ridley, 1894: [[https://archive.org/details/b28096265|"Malay Materia Medica"]], m.s. 136).

  * //"Cheraka  merah, an ornamental plant of evil reputation with small red flowers (Plumbago rosea, Linn.  Plumbaginaceae), grows in Malay villages and gardens; it is the same plant as the Hindustani lal chitra. The botany of Plumbago rosea has been described in great detail by Kirtikar and Basu (Ref. 14). Cheraka merah is an evergreen perennial shrub, 2 to 3 feet high, "very rarely annular" (Boissier) - perhaps only a cultivated variety of P. zeylanica (C. B. Clarke). The root of P. rosea is used by Malay women as an abortifacient: it is from 1/4 to 1/2 inch in thickness; when mature it is woody and solid, nodose, and contorted near the stem, with many rootlets, sometimes 2 feet long. When fresh it is darkish yellow in colour, becoming longitudinally striated when dry; on section, pale yellow, with a brown tinge in the central axis. In Kelantan it is used for the above illegal purpose in the form of a decoction compounded with the roots of four other village plants, which may be merely flavouring or corrective additions, as the root of P. rosea is well known to be acrid and vesicant."// (John Desmond (John D.) Gimlette, 1929: {{ :buku:b29808157.pdf ||}}[[https://archive.org/details/b29808157/|"MALAY POISONS AND CHARM CURES"]], m.s. 202).

Pelbagai kaedah pengubatan yang lain: //"Plumbago rosea Linn. (syn. Plumbago indica Linn.) from the family of Plumbaginaceae is commonly known as rose leadwort. This species originates from India and is now mostly cultivated in regions of Southeast Asia, Africa, China, the Arabian Peninsula, and Europe for its roots [17,18]. Plumbago rosea is a perennial plant and a spreading evergreen shrub with oval leaves and racemes of deep pink or scarlet flowers in winter. This plant has a sharp, hot taste and is considered good for digestion, slowing aging, and supporting longevity and strength. It is also traditionally used to treat inflammatory disorders, skin diseases [19], gastric acidity [20], constipation [20], abdominal pain [20], and as an abortifacient [21,22]. Moreover, the roots of P. rosea have been reported to possess antitumor [23] and antiatherogenic [24] activities. It also has many pharmacological activities, such as abortifacient [25], antiarthritic [26], anticancer [27,28,29], anticoagulant [30], antifeedant [31], and antifungal [32]. Several researchers described that P. rosea constitutes many active biochemicals, such as plumbagin [33], hydroxy-1,4-napthaquinone, sitosterol glycoside, fatty alcohol, and tannins [34]. Because of its different bioactivities, it is believed that it may also possess allelopathic activity."// (Thang Lam Lun, Arihiro Iwasaki, Kiyotake Suenaga, Hisashi Kato-Noguchi, Agronomy 2022, 12(9), 2020: {{ :lampiran:agronomy-12-02020-v2.pdf ||}} [[https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12092020|"Two Allelopathic Substances from Plumbago rosea Stem Extracts and Their Allelopathic Effects"]]).

==== Latar Sumber-Sumber ====

//"Malaysian plant knowledge development and expansion is basically derived and characterised by the Malay culture. The Malayan world's ethnobotany was recognized as early as 4th century A.D., during the Campa, Vietnam kingdom (Zain, 2003, p. 78). In the early years, in traditional Malay culture, plants and animals were used as remedies either for internal or external purposes (Balwi, 2003, pp. 51-52; Zakaria & Mohd, 1994, p. iii). There are approximately 120 species of plants mentioned in the Malay proverbs and at least twelve(12) unidentifiable species (Zain, 2003, p. 80). The principles of Malay traditional medicine are generally based on the Islamic influences of Arabic Unani medicine and galenic philosophy (Jamal, 2006). However, Malay traditional medicine is also influenced by beliefs and practices such as supernatural powers that was mostly influenced by Hindusm, before the arrival of Islam (Zakaria & Mohd, 1994, p.4). \\
\\
In Malaysia, civilisation as defined by Western literature only evolved following Portuguese settlement commencing in 1511, followed by Dutch colonization in 1642, before a more comprehensive colonization under the British empire (P.D.K.M. Salleh, 2007b). Historically, ethnobotany is as old as other disciplines in Malaysia and has a common knowledge among Malaysians (Latif, 1991). However, a well documented and intensive study on this knowledge for Malaysia is still insufficient. Munshi Ismail, in 1886, was the first Malaysian scholar involved in translating the manuscripts of 'Malay Traditional Medicines' into English, which were then sent to London for pharmaceutical purposes (P.D.K.M. Salleh, 2007b). Professional botanists from the United Kingdom were the pioneers in systematic plant literature in Malaysia. Another Western scholar who had contributed to medicinal botany on the Peninsular was E.M. Holmes, whose notes and records were published as the Malay Materia Medica in 1891. Henry Ridley, who pioneered the Malaysian rubber industry, also contributed greatly to the study of Malayan botany on the Malay Peninsula (P.D.K.M. Salleh, 2007a). Ridley researched plants including fungi, mosses, ferns and other higher plants, making plant collections while he was director of the Singapore Botanic Garden from 1901 to 1912 (Mat Salleh et. al. 2002). Ridley was also responsible for the Waterfall Gardens in Penang and was in charge of the Forest Reserves in the Straits Settlements (Singapore, Penang and Malacca) (P.D.K.M. Salleh, 2007a). Two local specimen collectors, Mohamed Haniff and Kiah from the Singapore Herbarium, helped Garden Director Burkill with his plants collections, documenting some 1675 specimens including some 13 families and 696 species of medical plants (P.D.K.M. Salleh, 2007b). Gimlett was also an expert in traditional medicine with a particular interest in the local Malay people of Kelantan was greatly assisted by Burkill. Gimlett wrote two books, Malay Poison and Charm Cures, which were published in 1915. In 1920 Burkill and Thomson published 'A Dictionary of Economic Product of the Malay Peninsula' (Kamarudin Mat Salleh, et al., n.d). In 1930 this manuscript had listed 1200 species of plants used by the locals was publlised as 'The Medical Book of Malayan Medicine', edited by Dr J.D. Gimlett with a botanical editorial by I.H. Burkill. \\
\\
Since then, until the early twentieth century, there has not been much research on ethnobotany carried out in Peninsular Malaysia. The Dictionary has been a major ethnobotanical reference which reprinted in 1996 (Kamarudin Mat Salleh, et al., n.d. p.1). However, these early ethnobotanical publications were only confined to medicinal and poisonous plants that focused upon the physical properties and economic potential of plants, with medicinal and aromatic plants being regarded as the most important ethnobotanical elements of human civilization (Latif, 1991; Kamarudin Mat Salleh, Latif, & Nazre, 2000)."//

(Sumber: Sapura Mohamad, July 2010: {{ :lampiran:02main.pdf ||}}[[https://hdl.handle.net/2440/68557|"The Ethnobotany of the Semelai Community at Tasek Bera, Pahang, Malaysia: An Ethnographic Approach for Re-Settlement"]], m.s. 67-68).

===== 1952: 3 Kes Kematian di Singapura =====

Seorang doktor di Singapura mendakwa berbahaya kerana di sana terdapat beberapa kes pengamalnya dijangkiti tetanus dan meninggal dunia:-

  * //"Use of plant root to induce abortion, a frequent practice of professional Malay abortionists, was very dangerous, Dr. K. Shanmugaretnam, the Singapore Government Pathologist, told the Singapore Coroner at an inquest yesterday. He was giving evidence on the death from tetanus last month of a 34-year-old woman, Chan Wai Leng. The Coroner returned a finding of 'criminal abortion against an unknown person' who, he said, had been responsible for Chan's death. Dr. Shanmugaretnam, who performed an autopsy on Chan, said that he found in her body a piece of root from a plant called "cheraka merah". It was identical to those found in other cases of abortion in Singapore. 'This method of abortion, often practised by professional Malay abortionists, carries a very great risk of tetanus," he added. Lee See, Chan's mother, said that her daughter's husband had left for America seven years ago and she had been living with another man. On May 8, Chan visited her and complained of a pain in the head. Three days later, her daughter sent for her. Chan was in bed and could not speak although she was conscious. She died in the General Hospital on May 14."// (The Straits Times, 13 June 1952, Page 10: {{ :akhbar:straitstimes19520613-1-2-159.pdf ||}}[[https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19520613-1.2.159|"Doctor warns of risky practice"]]).

  * //"Three cases in which illegal abortions were performed in Singapore by the use of 'abortion sticks' are reported in the latest issue of the journal published by the Alumni Association of the King Edward VII College of Medicine. All three patients died in the General Hospital after developing tetanus. After one of the deaths, information was obtained that a woman had performed the abortion. A trap was set by the Police and an arrest was made. The journal says that the 'abortion sticks' used in such cases have been traced to the plant cheraka merah (plumbago rosea). The cases show the dangerous association of tetanus infection by the use of such sticks in abortion. In one case, a 29-year-old Filipino woman, who was pregnant, was admitted into hospital and gave the history of having had the assistance of a Malay woman in producing abortion. She developed tetanus and died in hospital. No police investigation concerning the abortionist was made in this case because of lack of evidence says the journal. In another case, a 25-year-old Chinese woman had an abortion carried out by a Malay woman. She developed tetanus and died in hospital. Information led to an arrest. In a third case, a Chinese housemaid was admitted into hospital with clinical symptoms of tetanus. An autopsy performed after her death gave conclusive evidence that an abortion had been carried out."// (The Singapore Free Press, 9 August 1952, Page 1: {{ :akhbar:freepress19520809-1-2-20.pdf ||}}[[https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/freepress19520809-1.2.20|"3 abortion deaths in Singapore"]]).

Kemungkinan ciri-ciri //"abortion sticks"// yang dinyatakan dalam laporan akhbar di atas:-

  * //"The direct application of plumbago rosea, as well as P. zeylanica, to the vagina and uterus causes violent local inflammation. In India the crushed root, in the form of a paste, is used by natives as an abortifacient; it is applied either directly or smeared upon on an 'abortion-stick' made from a twig of one or other of the two plants. This 'abortion-stick' when introduced into the os uteri is liable to cause death from either pelvic or general peronitis; it is not thus used in Kelantan, and but rarely, if ever, in the other Malay States. Violent massage to the abdomen is a much more common expedient; but the introduction of foreign bodies into the pregnant uterus is known to be practised by Malays in the State of Perak. Cheraka is not credited with use for homicidal intent."// (John Desmond (John D.) Gimlette, 1929: {{ :buku:b29808157.pdf ||}}[[https://archive.org/details/b29808157/|"MALAY POISONS AND CHARM CURES"]], m.s. 204).

  * //"Use of Abortion Stick: a peculiar method of abortion is being practiced in India by dais, the so-called midwives/abortionists. The method consists in the use of specially prepared obect, known as abortion stick. This object may be a thin, wooden or bamboo stick about 15-20cm long or a twig of similar length from some irritant plant such as madar (Calotropis gigantea), chitra (Plumbago zeylanica), lal chitra (Plumbago rosea) or kaner (Nerium odorum). At one end, the stick is equipped with cotton wool or a piece of rag soaked in an irritant substance such as juice of marking nut or a paste prepared from white arsenic, red lead or asafoetida. The abortion stick is introduced into the os of the uterus. While abortion with or without rupture of membranes may ensue, sepsis is likely to be followed. Excoriation, bruising and perforation in the upper part of the vagina or uterus can occur due to irritant action of thr substances used and the violence perpetrated during the insertion of the stick."// (Krishan Vij, 2008: [[https://books.google.com.my/books?id=Vp8FAsnfGF4C|Textbook Of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology: Principles And Practice"]], m.s. 503 / Krishan Vij, 2011: [[https://books.google.com.my/books?id=pOd2EVL5xAwC|"Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology : Principles and Practice, 5/e"]], m.s.384).

  * //"Plumbago rosea Linn. (Plumbaginaceae); VN: Lal-cheeta (B/S); *A candle of about 9cm long is prepared from the root paste of this plant, which is kept inside overnight to induce abortion for the pregnancy up to 3 months by the Santal."// (S Mitra and Sobhan Kr Mukherjee, 2009. Natural Product Radiance, Vol 8(2) March-April 2009: {{ :lampiran:npr_8_2_167-171.pdf ||}}[[http://nopr.niscpr.res.in/handle/123456789/4039|"Some abortifacient plants used by the tribal people of West Bengal"]], m.s. 169).

===== 2007: Kajian Kesan Terhadap Janin =====

Suatu kajian kesan cheraka merah tempatan terhadap janin kandungan: //"This study sets out to evaluate the traditionally claimed antifertility activity of local variety of Plumbago rosea L. root. In the ancient Sanskrit medicinal literature, the abortifacient activity of this plant has been recorded (Burkhil, 1966). In Malaysia it is known as Cheraka merah and has several folk medicinal uses in the Southeast Asian countries. Locally it is used as an abortifacient by chewing the roots for sometimes. Beside its antifertility activity, other folk medicinal uses of this plant include uses in rheumatism, leprosy, stimulation of digestion and as emmenagogue (Burkil, 1966; Padua et al., 1999). Scientific research of antifertility activity along with other activities of this plant as single preparation or as part of composite preparation has also been done in some parts of the world (Sharma and Mahanta, 2000; Devi et al., 1998; Solomon et al., 1993; Lal et al., 1983). However, to the best of our knowledge and based on literature survey in Medline and other scientific resource database, no scientific research has yet been done on the uterotrophic, fetotoxicity and abortifacient activity of the local Malaysian variety of Plumbago rosea L. To this end, in this study an attempt has been made to evaluate the traditionally claimed antifertility activity of this plant using animal model through in vitro and in vivo approaches."// (Munavvar Abdul Sattar, Nor Azizan Abdullah, Md. Abdul Hye Khan, Aidiahmad Dewa and D. Samshia, 2007. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 10: 763-767: {{ :lampiran:763-767.pdf ||}}[[https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2007.763.767|"Uterotrophic, Fetotoxic and Abortifacient Effect of a Malaysian Variety of Plumbago rosea L. on Isolated Rat Uterus and Pregnant Mice."]]).